The effects of 12 weeks of resistance training combined with 5:2 intermittent fasting or continuous energy restriction on body composition, strength, compliance and gut microbiome.

INTERVENTION: Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 dietary groups: 1. 5:2 intermittent fasting ‐ participants were required to consume 100% of their estimated energy requirements 5 days per week, and 30% of estimated energy requirement on 2, non‐consecutive, non‐exercising days per week (fasting days). Fasting day intake consisted of protein shakes, protein soups (provided to participants) and raw/steamed vegetables or; 2. Continuous energy restriction ‐ participants were required to consume 80% of their estimated energy requirements each day. Both groups aimed to consume >=1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day on average. Participants were provided with customised meal plans and dietary advice at the beginning of the study by an accredited practising dietitian. The consultation with the dietitian lasted approximately 30 minutes, however, as the dietitian was also responsible for supervising the resistance training sessions (detailed below), participants had consistent contact with the dietitian over the 12 week intervention ( twice per week). In addition, all participants were asked to undertake 12 weeks of resistance training consisting of: ‐ 2 full body workout sessions per week last approximately 45 minutes supervised by a strength and conditioning coach and dietitian at Swinburne University's Hawthorn (Victoria) campus. These were conducted in groups consisting of <6 individuals at any one time, and consisted of exercises in a super‐set format (one exercise followed immediately by another, followed by a break). The super‐sets included push‐ups and squats, rows and lunges, bicep curls and dips, or variations of these exercises tailored to the individual's ability. Once participants could complete 3 sets of 15 repetiti CONDITION: Diet and Nutrition ‐ Obesity Diet and Nutrition ‐ Other diet and nutrition disorders Excess adiposity;Loss of lean body mass; ; Excess adiposity ; Loss of lean body mass PRIMARY OUTCOME: Lean body mass changes as assessed by dual x‐ray absorptiometry.[Baseline and post week 12.] SECONDARY OUTCOME: Changes in cravings. ; ‐Each day participants were asked to rate their cravings using 4 questions: ; ; Would you like something sweet? ; Would you like something salty? ; Would you like something savoury? ; Would you like something fatty? ; ; These were rated on a 10 point Likert scale from 0‐10, and adapted from a previously validated visual analogue scale for use on a mobile phone. [This outcome was assessed daily, from week 1 of the intervention until the completion of week 12, with weekly averages used for analysis.] Changes in dietary intake (energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate), measured using an electronic application (Easy Diet Diary) on 3 non consecutive days, including 2 week days and 1 weekend day.[Baseline, week 1, week 6, week 12.] Changes in energy levels. ; ‐Each day participants were asked to rate their mood using 4 questions: ; ; How alert do you feel? ; How much of an effort is it to do anything? ; How weary do you feel? ; How sleepy do you feel? ; ; These were rated on a 10 point Likert scale from 0‐10, and adapted from a previously validated visual analogue scale for use on a mobile phone. [This outcome was assessed daily, from week 1 of the intervention until the completion of week 12, with weekly averages used for analysis.] Changes in gut microbiome composition measured using DNA sequencing of frozen faecal samples.[Baseline and post week 12.] Changes in hunger. ; ‐Each day participants were asked to rate their hunger using 4 questions: ; ; How hungry do you feel? ; How satisfied do you feel? ; How full do you feel? ; How much do you think you can eat? ; ; These were rated on a 10 point Likert scale from 0‐10, and adapted from a previously validated visual analogue scale for use on a mobile phone.[This outcome was assessed daily, from week 1 of the intervention until the completion of week 12, with weekly averages used for analysis.] Changes in mood. ; ‐Each day participants were asked to rate their mood using 4 questions: ; ; How sad do you feel? ; How tense do you feel? ; How happy do you feel? ; How calm do you feel? ; ; These were rated on a 10 point Likert scale from 0‐10, and adapted from a previously validated visual analogue scale for use on a mobile phone.[This outcome was assessed daily, from week 1 of the intervention until the completion of week 12, with weekly averages used for analysis.] Changes in serum cholesterol (total cholesterol, LDL‐cholesterol and HDL‐cholesterol). This was measured by obtaining a fasting blood sample that was allowed to clot for greater than 20 minutes but less than 40 minutes before being centrifuged at 3000 RPM to separate the serum. This was then aliquoted and stored at ‐84 degrees Celcius before being transferred on dry ice to an external lab for analysis.[Baseline and post week 12.] Changes in serum glucose. This was measured by obtaining a fasting blood sample that was allowed to clot for greater than 20 minutes but less than 40 minutes before being centrifuged at 3000 RPM to separate the serum. This was then aliquoted and stored at ‐84 degrees Celcius before being transferred on dry ice to an external lab for analysis.[Baseline and post week 12. ] Changes in serum high‐sensitivity CRP. This was measured by obtaining a fasting blood sample that was allowed to clot for greater than 20 minutes but less than 40 minutes before being centrifuged at 3000 RPM to separate the serum. This was then aliquoted and stored at ‐84 degrees Celcius before being transferred on dry ice to an external lab for analysis.[Baseline and post week 12.] Changes in serum insulin. This was measured by obtaining a fasting blood sample that was allowed to clot for greater than 20 minutes but less than 40 minutes before being centrifuged at 3000 RPM to separate the serum. This was then aliquoted and stored at ‐84 degrees Celcius before being transferred on dry ice to an external lab for analysis[Baseline and post week 12.] Dietary compliance. ; ‐Each day participants were asked to rate their self‐perceived compliance to the dietary protocol based on how close they felt they got to their prescribed energy and protein targets. They were asked to rate this on a 0‐10 Likert scale.[This outcome was assessed daily, from week 1 of the intervention until the completion of week 12, with weekly averages used for analysis.] Local changes in the thigh muscle of the non‐dominant leg as measured by ultrasound and pQCT[Baseline and post week 12.] INCLUSION CRITERIA: 1. Aged between 18‐45 years 2. BMI of 22.0‐35.0 3. Body fat percentage >18% for males and >25% for females as assessed by dual x‐ray absorptiometry 4. No structured resistance training program in the previous 6 months 5. Weight stable for 3 months prior to the study (<5% weight loss or weight gain)