Effects of Immersive VR, Non-Immersive VR, and 3D-Printed Models on Anatomy Learning and Cognitive Load

Interactions with virtual content can enhance the creation and retention of knowledge. While some studies have found that learning methods involving the body-such as tactile manipulation-can lead to deeper understanding and higher achievement scores, other studies suggest that highly embodied tasks may limit the effectiveness of education by placing excessive cognitive or physical demands on learners. This study aims to compare the effects of different forms of visual representation and interaction (2D, digital 3D, physical 3D) on learning performance, presence, embodiment, and cognitive load among college students.