The effects of wearing a face mask on brain functioning in adults

INTERVENTION: Participants will come into the laboratory in the Department of Psychology for two visits (each 60 min) separated by 1 week. Participants will be asked to wear a PPE mask (Safe Plus anti‐fog, earloop type, manufactured by BH medical products Co., Ltd.) for one of the visits. Participants will wear the mask for at least 8 hours before commencing the experimental portion, which will last 60 mins for a total 9 hours of mask wearing. The experimental session involves the following sequence of events: 1. Complete the Mini Mental State Exam, Center for Epidemiological Studies ‐ Depression scale (CES‐D) and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Participants will not be informed of their scores. 2. Completion of simple computer‐based cognitive tests (described below). Haemoglobin concentrations and electrical activity will be recorded over the frontal lobe throughout the performance of the cognitive tests (described below). Cognitive Testing Participants will perform a battery of different computer‐based cognitive tests. Throughout the performance of the cognitive tests, hemoglobin concentrations and electrical activity will be recorded concurrently. The cognitive tests involve viewing a display on a computer monitor and then pressing a button. The responses involve indicating the location or identifying of a target stimulus. Each response and response latency will be recorded. Button presses will be made on a two‐button response box. No visual or audio recordings are involved, and all recordings are completely non‐invasive. The experiments are not difficult or stressful and participants will be encouraged to rest as often as they please. Hemoglobin concentrations and electrical activity measures Concentrations of ox CONDITION: Brain function ; ; Brain function Mental Health ‐ Studies of normal psychology, cognitive function and behaviour Neurological ‐ Studies of the normal brain and nervous system Public Health ‐ Other public health SECONDARY OUTCOME: Basic visuomotor performance as assessed by reaction times (ms) on Pro task. ; it was designed for this study. ; References: ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing and control sessions), one week apart.] Inhibitory control as assessed by reaction times (ms) on Anti task. ; it was designed for this study. ; References: ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Mood state (calm) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. PRIMARY OUTCOME: Concentrations of deoxygenated haemoglobin [HHb] as measured continuously using near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS).; ; ; Bierre KL, Lucas SJ, Guiney H, Cotter JD, Machado L. (2017). Cognitive Difficulty Intensifies Age‐related Changes in Anterior Frontal Hemodynamics: Novel Evidence from Near‐infrared Spectroscopy. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 72(2), 181‐188.[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing and control sessions), one week apart.] Concentrations of oxygenated [O2Hb] haemoglobin as measured continuously using near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). ; ; Bierre KL, Lucas SJ, Guiney H, Cotter JD, Machado L. (2017). Cognitive Difficulty Intensifies Age‐related Changes in Anterior Frontal Hemodynamics: Novel Evidence from Near‐infrared Spectroscopy. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 72(2), 181‐188.[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing and control sessions), one week apart.] Sum of concentrations of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin [total‐Hb] as measured continuously using near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS).; ; Bierre KL, Lucas SJ, Guiney H, Cotter JD, Machado L. (2017). Cognitive Difficulty Intensifies Age‐related Changes in Anterior Frontal Hemodynamics: Novel Evidence from Near‐infrared Spectroscopy. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 72(2), 181‐188.[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing and control sessions), one week apart.] ; ; Reference ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Mood state (energetic) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. ; ; Reference ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control ), each one week apart.] Mood state (happy) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. ; ; Reference ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i..e, mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Mood state (sad) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. ; ; Reference ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control) each one week apart] Mood state (tense) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. ; ; Reference ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; ; References: ; INCLUSION CRITERIA: ‐ At least 18 years of age. ‐ Normal or corrected‐to‐normal vision. ‐ Comfortable wearing a face mask for at least 8 hours. ‐ No scalp conditions and comfortable with us placing equipment on your head. ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Mood state (tired) as assessed using the Visual Analogue Mood Scales (VAMS). ; ; The response is given on a 0 (Not at all) to 100 (Extremely) visual analogue scale. ; ; Reference ; Machado, L., Thompson, L. M., & Brett, C. H. (2018). Visual analogue mood scale scores in healthy young versus older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 1‐8. doi:10.1017/S1041610218000996[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] selective attention as assessed by reaction times (ms) on Flanker task. ; ; References: ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Selective attention as assessed by reaction times (ms) on Simon task. ; ; References: ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Short term memory as assessed by total scores (i.e., the product of the maximum span and the total number of sequences recall correctly) on Forward Spatial memory. ; ; References: ; ; Kessels, R. P., van Zandvoort, M. J., Postma, A., Kappelle, L. J., & de Haan, E. H. (2000). The Corsi block‐tapping task: standardization and normative data. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(4), 252–258. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0704_8.[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Switching ability as assessed by reaction times (ms) on Pro/Anti task. ; It was designed for this study. ; References: ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(2), 179–191. https://doi. ; References: ; ; White, N., Flannery, L., McClintock, A., & Machado, L. (2019). ; Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and ; test‐retest reliability in healthy older adults. Journal of Clinical ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control) each one week apart.] the electrical activity of the brain (frontal lobe) as recorded using EEG. [Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing and control sessions), one week apart.] Working memory as assessed by overall accuracy on 2‐back task. ; White, N., Forsyth, B., Lee, A., & Machado, L. (2018). Repeated computerized cognitive testing: performance shifts and test‐retest reliability in healthy young adults. Psychological Assessment, 30(4),539–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000503. ; org/10.1080/13803395.2018.1526888[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.] Working memory as assessed by total scores (i.e., the product of the maximum span and the total number of sequences recall correctly) on Backward Spatial memory. ; Kessels, R. P., van Zandvoort, M. J., Postma, A., Kappelle, L. J., & de Haan, E. H. (2000). The Corsi block‐tapping task: standardization and normative data. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(4), 252–258. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0704_8.[Assessed at two time points (i.e., mask wearing, and control), each one week apart.]