Carbon-energy efficiency and yield optimization through partial substitution of nitrogen with organic amendments in maize-wheat cropping system under sub-temperate conditions

Agricultural production requires substantial energy inputs and contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers, posing risks to environmental sustainability. Integrated nutrient management (INM), incorporating farmyard manure (FYM), can improve productivity and economic returns, but its integration with natural formulations such as Jeevamrit and Beejamrit remains underexplored. Therefore, a field experiment (2019–2021) was conducted using a randomized complete block design with seven nutrient treatments i.e., T1: FYM + 5% Jeevamrit, T2: FYM + 10% Jeevamrit, T3: 50% N + FYM + 5% J, T4: 50% N + FYM + 10% J, T5: Beejamrit + 5% Jeevamrit, T6: Beejamrit + 10% Jeevamrit, T7: recommended NPK evaluate energy and carbon efficiency under partial substitution of chemical nitrogen with FYM and Jeevamrit. On basis pooled mean, results revealed that the INM treatment (50% N + 10 t ha⁻¹ FYM + 10% Jeevamrit) remained statistically at par with recommended NPK, while improving growth, yield attributes, and grain (4.08, 4.22 t ha− 1) and straw yields (6.72, 7.28 t ha− 1) in both maize and wheat. This treatment also recorded significantly higher net energy returns (), carbon output, and gross returns while remaining statistically at par with Recommended NPK and 50% N + 10 t ha⁻¹ FYM + 5% Jeevamrit while reducing carbon footprint compared to Recommended NPK, although Recommended NPK showed higher net returns and benefit–cost ratio. The Beejamrit + 5% Jeevamrit treatment, due to lower energy inputs, exhibited superiority energy-use efficiency (28.22, 20.19) and, carbon sustainability index (17.59%, 15.15%), carbon efficiency (15.59%, 17.15%) of maize wheat, respectively. Overall, INM-particularly partial nitrogen substitution with FYM and Jeevamrit-offers a sustainable, low-energy approach to maintain productivity and reduce environmental impacts in maize–wheat systems.